心理学人格的三种特质理论 明显的利他主义和进化方法的局限性

Evolution should cause selfishness to be adaptive because it will improve an individual's survival and potential reproductive succESS.

进化应该导致自私是适应性的，因为它将改善个体的生存和潜在的繁殖成功。

But what about altruistic behaviours, in which other animals benefit as a cost to the donor?

但是，在利他主义行为中，其他动物的受益是捐赠者的代价，那么利他主义行为呢？

Before looKing at the biological explanations for this, it is important to banish a demon. This one is called group selection (Wynne-Edwards, 1962). Animals do not gain a selective advantage by behaving in such a way that the group or species benefits. A group comprising these organisms would be open to exploitation by selfish animals.

在研究这方面的生物学解释之前，有必要先驱逐一个恶魔。这个恶魔被称为群体选择（Wynne-Edwards, 1962）。动物不会因为行为方式使群体或物种受益而获得选择优势。由这些生物组成的群体会被自私的动物所利用。

So 'cheats' in the population would be more successful and spread, thereby out-competing the altruistic animals or 'suckers'!

因此，种群中的'骗子'会更加成功和传播，从而超过利他主义的动物或'吸血者'！"。

There are two situations, however, when it could be beneficial to the inclusive fitness of an animal to behave in an apparently altrustic manner. In these situations, natural selection would favour such behaviours 然而，有两种情况，即以明显利他的方式行事，可能有利于动物的包容性健身。在这些情况下，自然选择会有利于这种行为:

1. Kin selection (Hamilton, 1964): If those animals receiving the benefits are close relatives they will share a large proportion of their genes with the donor (a high coefficient of relationship). 亲属选择（Hamilton, 1964）：如果那些接受利益的动物是近亲，它们将与捐赠者分享很大一部分基因（关系系数高）。
2. If the 'altruistic' act allows the recipients to leave more offspring, the donor will have at least some of his/her genes passed on. (This means that natural selction does not operate at the group level, nor even the individual level, but at the genetic level). 如果 "利他 "行为使接受者留下更多的后代，捐赠者至少会有他/她的一些基因被传递下去。(这意味着自然的自我保护并不是在群体层面上运作，甚至也不是在个人层面上，而是在基因层面上运作）。
3. The apparent altruism seen in social insects, such as ants and bees, can be explained by kin selection because the workers are very closely related. 在社会性昆虫中看到的明显的利他主义，如蚂蚁和蜜蜂，可以用亲属选择来解释，因为工人们的关系非常密切。
4. Reciprocal altruism (Trivers, 1971): Sometimes unrelated animals may show signs of altruism towards each other. This behaviour is adaptive as long as the favour is returned or reciprocated at a later date. The benefit to the recipient must be greater than the cost to the donor for the behaviour to evolve. 互惠的利他主义（Trivers, 1971）：有时不相关的动物可能会对彼此表现出利他主义的迹象。这种行为是适应性的，只要这种恩惠在以后的日子里得到回报或对等。接受者的利益必须大于捐赠者的代价，这种行为才会发展。

Here's a question for you: What stops a vampire bat from exploiting a reciprocal arrangement to get extra blood?

这里有一个问题要问你：是什么阻止了吸血蝙蝠利用互惠的安排来获得额外的血液？

The "tit-for-tat" strategy in vampire bats is a commonly occurring example of an evolutionarily stable strategy (or ESS, for short!).

吸血蝙蝠的 "针锋相对 "策略是一个普遍存在的进化稳定策略（或简称ESS！）的例子。

This means that if most of the population adopt the behaviour pattern, it cannot be beaten by any other strategy.

这意味着，如果大多数种群采用这种行为模式，它就不能被任何其他策略所击败。

Predictions about the way in which an animal should behave to maximise benefits and minimise costs can be made using game theory (an economic theory stolen by animal behaviourists).

可以用博弈论（一种被动物行为学家窃取的经济理论）来预测动物应该采取何种行为方式来实现利益最大化和成本最小化。

One type of game is the Prisoner's Dilemma, which models the behaviour of two individuals who could co-operate with each other (resulting in a mutual advantage) or try to stitch the other up (a big pay-off for the successful 'cheat')!

博弈的一种类型是 "囚徒困境"，它模拟了两个人的行为，这两个人可以相互合作（导致共同的利益），也可以试图缝合对方（成功的 "骗子 "会得到大笔的报酬）！"囚徒困境 "是一个很好的例子。

So, we've reviewed the theory and the evidence, but what about the limitations? Most of the criticisms focus on environmental influences outweighing the genetic factors 那么，我们已经回顾了理论和证据，但局限性呢？大多数的批评都集中在环境影响超过了遗传因素上 :

1. Nature vs. nurture: Behaviours arise trough an interaction of genetic and environmental influences. This suggests that the evolutionary approach can only tell part of the story. 自然与培养：行为的产生是通过遗传和环境影响的相互作用。这表明进化论的方法只能说明部分问题。
2. Cultural evolution: Behaviours may be transmitted through imitation from one individual to another, good behaviours spreading more rapidly than less beneficial ones. This becomes more common higher up the phylogenetic scale, which makes people reluctant to accept the evolutionary approach as an explanation of human behaviours. 文化进化：行为可以通过模仿从一个个体传播到另一个个体，好的行为比不好的行为传播得更快。这种情况在系统发育的较高阶段变得更加普遍，这使得人们不愿意接受用进化的方法来解释人类的行为。
3. Some criticisms focus on the methods of the evolutionary approach 一些批评意见集中在进化方法的方法上:
4. Pick 'n' choose: It has been suggested that the examples to demonstrate the evolution of behaviours are carefully selected and that many behaviours are ignored (Hayes, 1994). 挑'n'选择：有人认为，证明行为进化的例子是精心挑选的，许多行为被忽略了（Hayes, 1994）。

Remember that these are criticisms of the evolutionary approach as explanations of animal behaviour. The theory of evolution is not disputed in scientific circles.

请记住，这些都是对进化方法作为动物行为解释的批评。进化论在科学界没有争议。