五级量表做什么分析（国际课程A-level心理学）

Classical conditioning 古典条件反射

Conditioning is the process by which animals learn their behaviour patterns, according to the perspective of behaviourism (founded by John B. Watson, 1913).

条件反射是动物学习其行为模式的过程，根据行为主义的观点（由约翰-B-华生创立，1913年）。

This approach believes that only quantifiable evidence obtained through direct observation can be used to support psychological theories. Studies tend to use non-human animals and the conclusions are generalised to humans.

这种方法认为，只有通过直接观察获得的可量化的证据才能用来支持心理学理论。研究倾向于使用非人类的动物，并将结论概括到人类身上。

Ivan Pavlov discovered the concept of classical conditioning whilst investigating the salivation reflex of dogs. He observed that the dogs salivated in response to stimuli associated with food (for example, the bowl) as well as the food itself. This led him to design his experiment involving the pairing of a bell with the food to produce a salivation response to the bell alone (Pavlov, 1927).

伊万-巴甫洛夫在研究狗的唾液反射时发现了古典条件反射的概念。他观察到狗对与食物有关的刺激（如碗）以及食物本身的反应都会流口水。这促使他设计了他的实验，涉及将铃铛和食物配对，以产生对铃铛单独的流涎反应（巴甫洛夫，1927）。

Here is an outline of Pavlov's experiment 以下是巴甫洛夫实验的概要:

	Stimulus 刺激措施 :	Response 响应:
Before conditioning 调理前	Food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS). 食物（无条件的刺激，UCS）	Salivation (unconditioned response, UCR). 流口水（无条件反应，UCR）
Before conditioning 调理前	Bell (neutral stimulus, NS). 铃声（中性刺激，NS）	None. 无
During conditioning 调理期间	Bell (conditioned stimulus, NS) Food (unconditioned stimulus, UCS). 铃声（条件刺激，NS） 食物（无条件刺激，UCS）	Salivation (unconditioned response, UCR). 流口水（无条件反应，UCR）
After conditioning 调理后	Bell (conditioned stimulus, CS). 铃声（条件刺激，CS）	Salivation (conditioned response, CR). 流口水（无条件反应，UCR）

A range of Features are associated with classical conditioning. These include the timing of the stimuli 一系列的特征与古典条件反射有关。这些特征包括刺激的时间:

1. Forward conditioning: Occurs when the neutral stimulus (NS) appears just before and during the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). 正向条件反射。当中性刺激（NS）在无条件刺激（UCS）出现之前和期间出现时发生。
2. Delayed conditioning: Involves a delay between the presentation of the NS and the arrival of the UCS. 延迟条件反射。涉及到NS的呈现和UCS的到来之间的延迟。
3. Trace conditioning: Relies on the animal's memory - it is when the presentation of the NS ceases before the arrival of the UCS. 追踪调节。依赖于动物的记忆--当NS的呈现在UCS的到来之前停止时。
4. Backward conditioning: Involves the presentation of the NS after the UCS and usually results in no learning at all! 逆向条件反射。涉及到在UCS之后呈现NS，通常不会产生任何学习效果!

The effectiveness of learning associated with these timings follow the 'Law of contiguity' - stimuli need to occur close together in time in order to be associated.

与这些时间相关的学习效果遵循 "连续性法则"--刺激物需要在时间上接近，以便产生关联。

Here is a summary of the timings of conditioning 以下是调理时间的摘要 :

Other features of classical conditioning are outlined in the table below 下表概述了古典条件反射的其他特点 :

Term 术语:	Feature 特点:
Extinction 灭亡	The CS no longer predicts the arrival of the UCS, so the CR is lost. CS不再预测UCS的到来，因此CR消失。
Stimulus generalisation 刺激泛化	A stimulus similar to the CS (for example, a bell of a higher pitch) produces a CR. 一个与CS相似的刺激（例如，一个音调更高的铃声）会产生CR。
Spontaneous recovery 自发恢复	A previously extinct CR reappears upon the presentation of the CS. 以前消失的CR在CS出现时重新出现。
Stimulus discrimination 刺激识别	A stimulus significantly dissimilar to the CS (for example, a bell of a much higher pitch) does not produce a CR. 一个与CS明显不同的刺激（例如，一个音调更高的钟）不会产生CR。
Higher order conditioning 高阶条件反射	A NS is paired with a CS resulting in a new CS that induces the CR. 一个NS与一个CS配对，产生一个新的CS，诱发CR。

There is evidence that classical conditioning can explain how some human behaviours are learned.

有证据表明，古典条件反射可以解释人类的一些行为是如何学会的。

The case of 'Little Albert' is an example of a boy learning to fear white rats with a significant stimulus generalisation to include cotton wool and a Father Christmas mask! (Watson & Rayner, 1920). This was achieved through the pairing of the rat with a UCS (in this case, a loud bang).

小艾伯特 "的案例是一个男孩学会害怕白老鼠的例子，其重要的刺激泛化包括棉絮和圣诞老人的面具。(Watson & Rayner, 1920)。这是通过将大鼠与UCS（在这种情况下，一声巨响）配对实现的。

The theory of biological preparedness (Seligman, 1970) explains why a fear response to snakes can be conditioned more easily than one to cars.

生物准备理论（Seligman, 1970）解释了为什么对蛇的恐惧反应比对汽车的恐惧反应更容易被调控。

For example: It states that the process of evolution has predisposed organisms to readily learn to be afraid of things that might have caused our ancestors harm (hence snakes and not cars, even though cars are far more dangerous).

比如说。它指出，进化的过程使生物体容易学会害怕那些可能对我们的祖先造成伤害的东西（因此是蛇而不是汽车，尽管汽车要危险得多）。

Although conditioning can explain the rise of phobias, it is not clear to what extent it can explain the learning of more complex human behaviour patterns. Evidence suggests a more sophisticated language-based form of learning is available to humans (Dugdale & Lowe, 1990).

尽管条件反射可以解释恐惧症的出现，但不清楚它在多大程度上可以解释人类更复杂的行为模式的学习。有证据表明，人类有一种更复杂的基于语言的学习形式（Dugdale & Lowe, 1990）。

Operant conditioning 操作性条件反射

Operant conditioning: This was first described by Torndike's (1898) 'Law of effect' - a behaviour resulting in a pleasant outcome tends to be repeated, whereas behaviours followed by bad consequences are not.

操作性条件反射：这首先是由Torndike（1898）的 "效果法则 "描述的--导致愉快结果的行为往往会被重复，而导致不良后果的行为则不会。

This came about following a number of studies involving hungry cats learning to escape from puzzle boxes and thereby achieving the reward of some food. Over successive trials the cats got faster and faster at escaping from the boxes.

这是在一些研究之后产生的，这些研究涉及饥饿的猫咪学习从拼图箱中逃脱，从而获得一些食物的奖励。在连续的试验中，猫从箱子里逃出来的速度越来越快。

This expression of operant conditioning was refined by Skinner, who performed experiments using a different type of box. This is known as the Skinner box.

斯金纳改进了这种操作性条件反射的表达方式，他使用不同类型的盒子进行了实验。这就是所谓的斯金纳箱。

The animal inside the box had to perform some kind of behaviour or operant (lever pressing for rats and disc pecking for pigeons) resulting in a consequence - a positive or negative reinforcement or punishment. According to Skinner, these consequences shape and maintain the behaviours (Skinner, 1938).

箱子里的动物必须执行某种行为或操作性（老鼠按压杠杆，鸽子啄食圆盘），从而产生一种后果--一种积极或消极的强化或惩罚。根据斯金纳的说法，这些后果形成并维持着行为（斯金纳，1938）。

Can you remember the consequences of the behaviours and their effects?

你能记住这些行为的后果和它们的影响吗？

Drag the correct consequence (pink) onto the blue text and then mark your answer 把正确的后果（粉红色）拖到蓝色文本上，然后标出你的答案 :

1. Positive reinforcers (for example, food). 正面强化物（例如食物）
2. Negative reinforcers (for example, electric shock). 负面强化物（例如：电击）
3. Punishers (for example, electric shock). 惩罚者（例如，电击）

In the real world, not all reinforcers are reinforcing in themselves.

在现实世界中，并非所有的强化物本身都是强化的。

Those that are reinforcing themselves, we call primary reinforcers, for example, water, food and sex. These are natural reinforcers, which result in a strengthening of the behaviours leading to them.

那些本身是强化的，我们称之为主要强化物，例如，水、食物和性。这些是天然的强化物，会导致导致行为的加强。

Secondary reinforcers only strengthen behaviours because the animal has learned that they are reinforcing, for example; we learn that money leads to positive consequences.

二级强化物只强化行为，因为动物已经学会了它们的强化作用，例如；我们学会了金钱会导致积极的后果。

The predictability of the reinforcement also has an influence on the behaviour of animals. Different schedules of reinforcement, which vary the regularity of reinforcements, can be applied and an assessment of the consequent patterns and rates of responses can be made.

强化物的可预测性对动物的行为也有影响。可以采用不同的强化时间表，改变强化的规律性，并对随之而来的反应模式和速率进行评估。

It seems that a continuous schedule, when every response is reinforced, is good for learning new responses, but a partial schedule would be better at maintaining the behaviour and avoiding extinction.

看来，每一个反应都得到强化的连续计划有利于学习新的反应，但部分计划在维持行为和避免灭绝方面会更好。

So far, we have looked at the mechanisms of operant conditioning but how do these lead to the learning of new behaviours?

到目前为止，我们已经研究了操作性条件反射的机制，但这些机制是如何导致新行为的学习的？

Shaping: The animal learns a new behaviour by the reinforcement of responses that are a step closer to the desired behaviour. This is the method used to train animals. A form of shaping is used to teach people with learning difficulties to carry out tasks for themselves, for example, feeding, using the toilet, for example. This is called behaviour modification.

塑造：动物通过强化离理想行为更近一步的反应来学习新的行为。这是用来训练动物的方法。塑造的一种形式被用来教有学习困难的人自己完成任务，例如，喂食、上厕所等。这被称为行为矫正。

Negative reinforcement: Can be used to escape or avoid an unpleasant stimulus.

负性强化：可用于逃避或避免不愉快的刺激。

Punishments can only weaken existing behaviours, so do not lead to the learning of new ones. Although they can be used to suppress undesirable behaviours whilst new ones are being reinforced.

惩罚只能削弱现有的行为，所以不会导致学习新的行为。虽然它们可以用来抑制不良行为，而新的行为则得到强化。

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