商朝兴起（上古时期至商朝）

Early Times to Shang Dynasty

—An OutⅠine of the History of China from EarⅠiest Times to 1840（1）

（Learn to spread China and Chinese cuIture in EngIish）

Chinese recorded history begins with a mythological period, followed by the Xia dynasty, which is traditionally dated from2033—1562 BC. This in turn is followed by the Shang dynasty, traditionally dated from1562—1066 BC. Until early this century,most Western scholars took the view that these two dynasties were mythical,and much time and effort were spent by reputable scholars in trying to prove that the Chinese must have come from Egypt, Babylon（巴比伦） or Sumeria（苏美尔）. However,since 1928, the existence of the Shang dynasty has been confirmed by numerous archaeological（考古） findings. And, although no positive archaeological evidence of the Xia dynasty has yet been uncovered, there is now no doubt that China has been continuously inhabited by human creatures since the old stone age. For example, the skull of a human creature, dating back some 600,000 years,was found at Lantian in 1964,and already in1921 remains of the culture of what has come to be known as Beijingman (Pekingman), dating back 500,000 years, were discovered in a cave at Zhoukoudian, near Beijing. This cave seems to have been inhabited right down to the new stone age period.Many other new stone age sites have since been uncovered throughout China. The beginnings of agriculture and of the domestication （训化）of animals, which were collective activities, are now dated at about 4，000 BC. It was also during this period that dams and irrigation canals were built for controlling rivers and preventing floods. Other developments also took place, such as the manufacture of pottery,the discovery of silk，and the construction of carriages and boats.The legendary deeds of the culture heroes of the mythological period and of the Xia dynasty, as recorded in the Chinese annals, appear to be based on the activities of this new stone age period.

The Shang dynasty which followed was a bronze age culture（青铜期文化）.Western scholars had thought it to be purely legendary as well,until the excavations（发掘） of 1928 uncovered royal tombs dating back to the fifteenth century BC. Even so,the bronze sacrificial vessels discovered there, ranging from small cups to gigantic cauldrons, showed such technical skill and artistry, that at first many scholars thought that the Shang rulers must have been invaders from Central Asia, who brought their bronze skills with them.But more recent excavations indicate that the transition from stone to bronze was a gradual one, and almost certainly took place in China itself.

One of the major effects of the development of bronze techniques was to bring about a separation of Chinese society into town and country dwellers. The nobility and their specialised craftsmen lived in the towns, supported by the produce of the peasants living in the countryside. The peasants, who had previously been involved in both hunting and agriculture, now devoted themselves almost entirely to agriculture, while living in conditions which were little different from those of the new stone age.Hunting, however,was now left to the nobles, who lived in walled towns together with their servants and craftsmen . When they were not on hunting expeditions, they were at, war with one another. The main purpose of war was to acquire additional slaves and labourers for supplying the nobles' extravagant needs .

Regular religious rites also played an important part in the life of the Shang nobles.In addition to a supreme deity（至高无上的神）, called Shangdi（上帝）, they also worshipped the spirits of their ancestors. The ceremonies involved the sacrifice of hundreds of animals, domestic（家畜 ）as well as those obtained from the hunt, and often involved the sacrifice of prisoners of war. The lavish（大量的） quantities of alcohol which were consumed during these ceremonies were made from cereal （谷物）produced by the peasants,and the Shang rulers have gone down in Chinese history as dissolute（放荡的） drunkards. In addition, their tombs were filled with hundreds of objects made of gold, jade,bronze and stone, for their use in the after life,and in many cases, their slaves were buried with them as well. Tombs have been found in which the slaves appear to have been buried alive, and others in which they have been found be headed in groups of ten. In one tomb alone, some 300 skeletons have been found.

Our knowledge of the Shang period comes not only from the excavations,but also from the inscriptions on the oracle bones（甲骨） and tortoise shells which have been found. These are the clearest and so far the best attested examples of early Chinese writing which have come down to us, and they confirm, among other things, the list of the thirty Shang kings which had been handed down by later Chinese historical tradition. And, according to historical annals（年鉴）, the dissoluteness and extravagance of the Shang rulers Ⅰed to the revolt of the people against them, and the establishment of the Zhou dynasty.

According to Chinese historical tradition,the early mythological rulers had, on their death, handed the succession on,not to their sons, but to the ablest of their ministers. One of these, Yu（禹）, whose major achievement according to the legends was the controlling of the Yellow River floods，reversed the non-hereditary principle and became the founder of the Xia dynasty. From then on, the hereditary （世袭） principle was maintained right up to 1911, although it was not always strictly followed. This was due, in part, to the development of a concept known as the ‘Mandate of Heaven’（神谕） or Tianming.The oracle bone inscriptions made firequent reference to Shangdi or Lord on High, often translated into English as God. Shangdi was a divine ruler who watched over human society and regulated the working of the universe. Later, the word for Heaven came to be used as synonym and eventually, the ‘di ’of Shangdi came to represent the supreme ruler of all creation.Thus, Heaven to the Chinese was not just the material heavens，but was an intelligent power which guided men's destiny. Heaven, said the Zhou rulers,chose certain men to be rulers, but they and their descendants could continue to rule only as long as they governed wisely and justly. Once they forsook（背弃） the way of virtue, Heaven would withdraw its mandate from them,and this would be shown by the appearance of moral and physical disorder throughout the country . Thus,a state might be the most powerful in existence, but if its ruler was cruel and unjust, Heaven would withdraw its mandate. On the other hand, a state might be weak and small, but if the ruler was wise and benevolent（仁慈）,Heaven would look on him with favour.

Chinese thinkers throughout the ages have been preoccupied with （担忧）the problem of the moral responsibilities of the ruler, and the way in which he should carry them out in order to retain Heaven's mandate. In the next chapter, I will begin with some indication of how the Zhou rulers carried out their mandate.

上古时期至商朝

中国有记载的历史始于神话时期，然后是夏朝，传统上可以追溯到公元前2033年至1562年。接着是商朝，传统上可以追溯到公元前1562-1066年。直到本世纪初，大多数西方学者都认为这两个朝代是虚构的，著名学者花费了大量时间和精力试图证明中国人一定来自埃及、巴比伦或苏美尔。然而，自1928年以来，无数考古发现证实了商朝的存在。而且，尽管尚未发现夏朝的积极考古证据，但现在毫无疑问，自旧石器时代以来，中国一直有人类居住。例如，1964年在蓝田发现了一具距今约60万年的人类头骨，1921年，在北京附近周口店的一个洞穴中发现了距今50万年的北京人文化遗迹。这个洞穴似乎一直居住到新石器时代。此后，中国各地还发现了许多新的石器时代遗址。农业和动物驯化的起源是集体活动，现在大约可以追溯到公元前4000年。也正是在这一时期，为了控制河流和防止洪水，修建了水坝和灌溉渠。其他发展也出现了，例如陶器的制造、丝绸的发现以及马车和船只的建造。中国编年史上记载的神话时期和夏朝文化英雄的传奇事迹，似乎都是基于这个新石器时代的活动。

随后的商代是青铜时期文化。西方学者一直认为这也是纯粹的传说，直到1928年的发掘发现了可追溯到公元前15世纪的皇家陵墓。尽管如此，在那里发现的青铜礼器，从小杯到大锅，都显示出高超的技术和艺术性，以至于起初许多学者认为商朝统治者一定是来自中亚的入侵者，他们带来了青铜技能。但最近的发掘表明，从石器到青铜器的转变是一个渐进的过程，几乎可以肯定的是，这种转变发生在中国本土。

青铜技术发展的主要影响之一是将中国社会分为城镇和农村居民。贵族和他们的专业工匠居住在城镇里，由生活在农村的农民的农产品提供支持。农民们以前既从事狩猎又从事农业，现在几乎完全致力于农业，而生活条件与新石器时代几乎没有什么不同。然而，狩猎现在留给了贵族，他们与仆人和工匠一起生活在有围墙的城镇里。当他们不去狩猎探险时，他们就在互相打仗。战争的主要目的是获得更多的奴隶和劳工，以满足贵族的奢侈需求。

正规的宗教仪式在商朝贵族的生活中也发挥了重要作用。除了一个被叫做上帝

声明：本文中的英文资料源于外语教学与研究出版社出版的《中国（上古时期—1840年）》，部分内容有删减。如有侵权，联系删除。欢迎阅读！感谢关注！