动物心理学知识点（A-level心理学重点知识点笔记）

Social learning occurs when other individuals have a direct influence on the acquisition of a new skill. Therefore, this does not include contagion but can occur by imitation, tutoring, mimicry and stimulus enhancement.

当其他个体对新技能的获得有直接影响时，就会发生社会学习。因此，这不包括传染，但可以通过模仿、辅导、模仿和刺激增强发生。

Contagion involves an animal copying what another animal is doing, using an already known behaviour. This is not imitation because no new behaviour is learned - the animal is simply using a response from its range of behaviours. An example of this is yawning in humans - very contagious!

传染是指一只动物使用一种已经知道的行为，复制另一只动物正在做的事情。这不是模仿，因为没有学到新的行为，动物只是使用其行为范围中的一个反应。这方面的一个例子是人类的打哈欠--非常具有传染性！这就是模仿。

Imitation involves the appropriate behaviour being demonstrated to a conspecific (member of the same species) and that conspecific replicating the behaviour at a later stage.

模仿包括向同种动物（同一物种的成员）展示适当的行为，并且该同种动物在以后的阶段复制该行为。

Evidence comes from the fact that a cat will escape more quickly from a puzzle box if it has observed another cat learning to escape beforehand (Herbert & Harsh, 1944). This type of social learning is passive, based on observation alone.

证据来自于这样一个事实：如果一只猫事先观察到另一只猫在学习逃跑，它就会更快地从拼图箱中逃脱（Herbert & Harsh, 1944）。这种类型的社会学习是被动的，仅仅基于观察。

Tutoring is an active process in which one animal invests time and energy teaching a conspecific an appropriate behaviour.

辅导是一个积极的过程，在这个过程中，一只动物投入时间和精力教给同种动物一个适当的行为。

Boesch (1991) observed tutoring of nut cracking in chimpanzees, which included such things as mothers' correctly positioning hammers and intact nuts and a mother slowing down and modifying her nut cracking for the benefit of her offspring.

Boesch（1991）观察到黑猩猩裂解坚果的辅导，其中包括诸如母亲正确定位锤子和完整的坚果，以及母亲为了后代的利益放慢和修改她的坚果裂解。

Mimicry is similar to imitation, although there is no obvious reward following the behaviour.

模仿类似于模仿，尽管行为之后没有明显的奖励。

These examples of facilitation help conspecifics to adopt the appropriate behaviour without the need for the tedious trial-and-error associated with conditioning. Through imitation there is no need to re-invent the wheel!

这些促进作用的例子帮助同种动物采用适当的行为，而不需要进行与条件反射有关的繁琐的试验和错误。通过模仿，不需要重新发明轮子。

Animals may get an idea of the behaviours to be imitated from stimulus enhancement. That is, the animal is attracted to things that are attractive to conspecifics. So it may be that the behaviour itself is not imitated but animals are just plain nosey!

动物可以从刺激物的增强中获得对要模仿的行为的想法。也就是说，动物会被那些对同种动物有吸引力的东西所吸引。因此，可能行为本身并没有被模仿，而动物只是单纯的多管闲事！"。

Evidence for stimulus enhancement comes from McQuoid & Galef (1992), who studied jungle fowl. These birds have a curiosity for feeding bowls visited by conspecifics.

刺激增强的证据来自于McQuoid和Galef（1992），他们研究了丛林鸟。这些鸟类对同种鸟来访的喂食碗有一种好奇心。

Not all animals are prone to stimulus enhancement, it seems that observation of a conspecific finding food actually impairs a pigeons performance (Burt & Guilford, 1999)!

并非所有的动物都容易出现刺激增强，似乎观察同种动物寻找食物实际上会损害鸽子的表现（Burt & Guilford, 1999）！这是因为鸽子对食物的需求量很大。

It is difficult to tell what type of social learning is going on. A foraging study using ravens showed inexperienced birds did copy trained birds to open boxes to get food (Fritz & Kotrschal, 1999). But this could be explained by both imitation and stimulus enhancement.

很难说是什么类型的社会学习在进行。一项用乌鸦进行的觅食研究表明，没有经验的鸟儿确实模仿受过训练的鸟儿打开箱子来获取食物（Fritz & Kotrschal, 1999）。但这可以用模仿和刺激增强来解释。

The classic example of social learning in foraging comes from the potato washing of a group of Japanese macaques (Kawamura, 1959, Kawai, 1965). A young female of this species started to wash human-provisioned potatoes that had become sandy, and this behaviour spread to other group members, possibly as they imitated one another's behaviour.

觅食中社会学习的典型例子来自于一群日本猕猴的土豆清洗行为（Kawamura, 1959, Kawai, 1965）。该物种的一只年轻雌性猕猴开始清洗人类提供的已经起沙的土豆，这种行为传播给了其他群体成员，可能是因为它们互相模仿对方的行为。

However, evidence suggests that this may not be an example of behaviour transmitted by imitation.

然而，有证据表明，这可能不是一个通过模仿传播行为的例子。

As it took a long time for the behaviour to spread through the group, Galef (1992) suggested that individual Japanese macaques most likely learned to wash potatoes on their own (as had the original inventor), not by imitation.

由于这种行为花了很长时间才在群体中传播，Galef（1992）认为，个别日本猕猴很可能是自己学会了洗土豆（就像最初的发明者那样），而不是通过模仿。

He also noted that the young, following their mothers into the water, were finding potatoes there, thus providing an opportunity for individual learning. Furthermore, Visalberghi and Fragaszy (1990) found that other macaques could learn this behaviour on their own fairly quickly if given sandy fruits and bowls of water.

他还指出，小猕猴跟随母亲进入水中，在那里找到土豆，从而为个体学习提供了机会。此外，Vesarberghi和Fragaszy（1990）发现，如果给其他猕猴提供沙质水果和水碗，它们可以相当快地自行学习这种行为。

Another behaviour thought to be transmitted by social learning is milk bottle raiding by blue tits Fisher & Hinde (1949). The birds peck open the foil lid to get to the cream underneath. This behaviour was first observed in southern England in 1921 and spread very rapidly.

另一个被认为是通过社会学习传播的行为是蓝山雀的抢奶瓶行为，Fisher & Hinde（1949）。这些鸟儿啄开铝箔盖子，以获取下面的奶油。这种行为在1921年首次在英格兰南部观察到，并迅速蔓延。

It has been shown that this may, in part, be an imitated behaviour but independent learning and birds having encountered an opened bottle before are also significant factors (Sherry & Galef, 1984). Furthermore, social facilitation may also encourage birds to peck at bottle tops (Sherry & Galef, 1990).

已经证明，这可能部分是一种模仿行为，但独立学习和鸟类以前遇到过开过的瓶子也是重要因素（Sherry & Galef, 1984）。此外，社会促进作用也可能鼓励鸟类啄食瓶口（Sherry & Galef, 1990）。

Social learning is important for predators. The ability to teach young to hunt provides a selective advantage over competitors learning through trial-and-error. Lions learn from play and observing the behaviour of other members of the pride (Schaller, 1972). Cheetahs provide their young with injured prey and actively tutor them in the skills of hunting (Eaton, 1970).

社会学习对捕食者很重要。教导幼崽捕猎的能力提供了比竞争对手通过试错学习的选择优势。狮子从游戏和观察狮群中其他成员的行为中学习(Schaller, 1972)。猎豹为它们的孩子提供受伤的猎物，并积极辅导它们的狩猎技巧(Eaton, 1970)。