中级微观经济学知识结构图（A-level经济AS微观经济学）

Word

Definition

Microeconomics

微观经济学

The study of the behaviour of individuals or groups within an economy, typically within a market context

研究个人或群体在经济中的行为，通常是在市场背景下。

Basic Economic Problem

基本经济问题

Resources have to be allocated between competing uses because wants are infinite whilst resources are Scarce

资源必须在相互竞争的用途之间分配，因为需求是无限的，而资源是稀缺的。

Choice

选择权

Economic choices involve the alternative uses of scarce resources

资源必须在相互竞争的用途之间分配，因为需求是无限的，而资源是稀缺的。

Economic goods

经济物品

Goods which are scarce because their use has an opportunity cost

稀缺的商品，因为其使用有机会成本。

Free Goods

免费商品

Goods which are unlimited in supply and which therefore have no opportunity cost

供应无限，因此没有机会成本的物品。

Margin

极限

A point of possible change

可能发生变化的一个点

Needs

必需品

The minimum which is necessary for a person to survive as a human being

一个人作为人的生存所必需的最低限度的东西。

Opportunity Cost

机会成本

The benefits foregone of the next best alternative

下一个最佳选择所放弃的利益。

Production Possibility Frontier (PPF)

生产可能性边界（PPF）

A curve which shows the maximum potential level of output of one good given a level of output for all other goods in the economy

在经济中所有其他商品的产出水平下，显示一种商品的最大潜在产出水平的曲线。

Scarce Resources

稀缺资源

Resources which are limited in supply so that choices have to be made about their use

供应有限的资源，因此必须对其使用做出选择。

Wants

欲望

Desires for the consumption of goods and services

对商品和服务的消费欲望。

Capital Productivity

资本生产力

Output per unit of capital employed

每单位资本的产出

Division Of Labour

劳动分工

Specialisation by workers

工人的专业化

Factors Of Production

生产要素

The inputs to the production process: land, which is all natural resources; labour, which is the workforce; capital, which is the stock of manufactured resources used in the production of goods and services; enterprise, individuals seeking out profitable opportunities for production and taking risks in attempting to exploit these

生产过程的投入：土地，即所有自然资源；劳动，即劳动力；资本，即用于生产商品和服务的人造资源存量；企业，即寻求有利可图的生产机会并在试图利用这些机会时承担风险的个人。

Fixed Capital

固定资本

Economic resources such as factories and hospitals which are used to transform working capital into goods and services

经济资源，如工厂和医院，用于将营运资本转化为商品和服务

Human Capital

人力资本

The value of the productive potential of an individual or group of workers. It is made up of the skills, talents, education and training of an individual or group and represents the value of future earnings and production

一个人或一群工人的生产潜力的价值。它由个人或群体的技能、才能、教育和培训组成，代表了未来收入和生产的价值。

Labour Productivity

劳动生产率

Output per worker

每个工人的产出

Market

市场

Any convenient set of arrangements by which buyers and sellers communicate to exchange goods and services

任何方便的安排，买家和卖家通过这些安排来交换商品和服务。

Non-renewable Resources

不可再生资源

Raw materials, such as coal or oil, which once exploited cannot be replaced

原材料，如煤或石油，一旦被开采就不能被替代。

Non-sustainable Resources

不可持续的资源

Resources which are being economically exploited in such a way that it is being reduced over time

在经济上被开采的资源，随着时间的推移，它的数量会减少。

Primary Sector

初级部门

Extractive and agricultural industries

采掘业和农业

Productivity

生产力

Output per unit of input employed

每单位投入的产出

Profits

利润

The reward to the owners of a business. It is the difference between a firm’s revenues and its costs

对企业所有者的回报。它是企业收入与成本之间的差额。

Renewable Resources

可再生资源

Raw materials, such as fish stocks or forests, which can be exploited over and over again because they have the potential to be reproduced

原材料，如鱼群或森林，可以反复利用，因为它们有可能被复制。

Secondary Sector

第二产业

Production of goods, mainly manufactured

商品的生产，主要是制造业

Specialisation

专业化

A system of organisation where economic units such as households or nations are not self-sufficient but concentrate on producing certain goods and services and trading the surplus with others

一种组织系统，其中家庭或国家等经济单位不是自给自足，而是集中生产某些商品和服务，并与其他单位交易剩余的产品。

Stakeholders

利益相关者

Groups of people which have an interest in a firm, such as shareholders, customers, suppliers, workers, the local community and government

与公司有利益关系的群体，如股东、客户、供应商、工人、当地社区和政府。

Sustainable Resource

可持续资源

Renewable resources which are being economically exploited in such a way that they will not diminish or run out

可再生资源，在经济上被开发，不会减少或耗尽。

Tertiary Sector

第三产业

Production of services

服务的生产

Utility

实用性

The satisfaction derived from consuming a good

从消费商品中获得的满足感

Welfare

福利

The well-being of an economic agent or group of economic agents

一个经济主体或一组经济主体的福祉

Working/Circulating Capital

营运/循环资本

Resources which are in the production system waiting to be transformed into goods or other materials before being finally sold to the consumer

处于生产系统中的资源，在最终出售给消费者之前等待转化为商品或其他材料。

Base Period

基准期

The period, such as a year or a month, with which all other values in a series are compared

诸如一年或一个月的时期，一个系列中的所有其他数值都与之相比。

Index number

指数

An indicator showing the relative value of one number to another from a base of 100. It is often used to present an average of a number of statistics

显示一个数字对另一个数字的相对价值的指标，以100为基数。它经常被用来表示一些统计数据的平均值

Nominal Values

名义值

Values unadjusted for the effects of inflation (i.e. values at current prices)

未对通货膨胀的影响进行调整的数值（即按当前价格计算的数值）。

Real Values

实际值

Values adjusted for the effects of inflation (i.e. values at constant prices)

根据通货膨胀的影响进行调整的数值（即按不变价格计算的数值）。

Ceteris Paribus

等价交换

The assumption that all other variables within the model remain constant whilst one change is being considered

假设模型中的所有其他变量保持不变，同时考虑一种变化。

Equilibrium

均衡

The point where what is expected or planned is equal to what is realised or actually happens

预期的或计划的与实现的或实际发生的相等的点。

Law

法则

A theory or model which has been verified by empirical evidence

经由经验证据验证的理论或模型。

Normative Economics

规范性经济学

The study and presentation of policy prescriptions involving value judgements about the way in which scarce resources are allocated

对涉及稀缺资源分配方式的价值判断的政策处方的研究和介绍。

Normative Statement

规范性声明

A statement which cannot be supported or refuted because it is a value judgement

不能被支持或反驳的声明，因为它是一种价值判断。

Partial And General Models

局部模型和一般模型

A partial model is one with few variables whilst a general model has many

局部模型是一个只有少数变量的模型，而一般模型则有许多变量。

Positive Economics

积极的经济学

The scientific or objective study of the allocation of resources

对资源分配的科学或客观研究。

Positive Statement

积极的声明

A statement which can be supported or refuted by evidence

一个可以用证据支持或反驳的声明。

Static And Dynamic Models

静态和动态模型

A static model is one where time is not a variable. In a dynamic model, time is a variable explicit in the model

静态模型是指时间不是一个变量。在动态模型中，时间是模型中明确的一个变量。

The Scientific Method

科学方法

A method which subjects theories or hypotheses to falsification by empirical evidence

使理论或假说受到经验证据的证实的方法。

Theory Or Model

理论或模型

A hypothesis which is capable of refutation by empirical evidence

能够被经验证据反驳的假说。

Command Or Planned Economy

指挥性或计划性经济

An economic system where government, through a planning process, allocates resources in society

政府通过计划过程在社会中分配资源的经济体系。

Economic System

经济体系

A complex network of individuals, organisations and institutions and their social and legal interrelationships

一个由个人、组织和机构及其社会和法律关系组成的复杂网络。

Free-market Economy

自由市场经济

An economic system which resolves the basic economic problem through the market mechanism

一种通过市场机制解决基本经济问题的经济体系。

Mixed Economy

混合经济

An economy where both the free-market mechanism and the government planning process allocate significant proportions of total resources

自由市场机制和政府规划过程都能分配总资源的重要比例的经济。

Consumer Surplus

消费者盈余

The difference between how much buyers are prepared to pay for a good and what they actually pay

购买者准备为某种商品支付的费用与他们实际支付的费用之间的差异。

demand curve

需求曲线

The line on a price-quantity diagram which shows the level of effective demand at any given price

价格-数量图上显示任何给定价格下有效需求水平的线条。

Demand Or Effective Demand

需求或有效需求

The quantity purchased of a good at any given price, given that other determinants of demand remain unchanged

在其他需求决定因素不变的情况下，在任何给定的价格下购买某种商品的数量。

Individual Demand Curve

个人需求曲线

The demand curve for a single consumer, firm or other economic unit

一个消费者、公司或其他经济单位的需求曲线。

Market Demand Curve

市场需求曲线

The sum of all individual demand curves

所有单个需求曲线的总和。

Shift In The Demand Curve

需求曲线的移动

A movement of the whole demand curve to the right or left of the original caused by a change in any variable affecting demand except price

由于影响需求的任何变量（价格除外）的变化而使整个需求曲线向右或向左移动。

Individual Supply Curve

单个供应曲线

The supply curve of a single producer

单个生产者的供应曲线。

Market Supply Curve

市场供应曲线

The supply curve of all producers within the market. In a perfectly competitive market it can be calculated by summing the supply curves of individual producers

市场内所有生产者的供给曲线。在一个完全竞争的市场中，它可以通过将各个生产者的供应曲线相加来计算。

Producer Surplus

生产者盈余

The difference between the market price which firms receive and the price at which they are prepared to supply

企业获得的市场价格与他们准备供应的价格之间的差额。

Supply

供应

The quantity of goods that suppliers are willing to sell at any given price over a period of time

在一段时期内，供应商愿意以任何特定价格出售的商品数量。

Equilibrium Price

均衡价格

The price at which there is no tendency to change because planned purchases (i.e. demand) are equal to planned sales (i.e. supply)

由于计划购买（即需求）与计划销售（即供应）相等而不存在变化趋势的价格。

Excess Demand

超额需求

Where demand is greater than supply

需求大于供给的情况。

Excess Supply

过量供应

Where supply is greater than demand

供应大于需求的地方。

Market Clearing Price

市场清算价格

The price at which there is neither excess demand nor excess supply but where everything offered for sale is purchased

既不存在过剩需求也不存在过剩供应的价格，但所有出售的东西都被购买。

Competitive Demand

竞争性需求

When two or more goods are substitutes for each other

当两种或两种以上的商品相互替代时。

Complement

补充物

A good which is purchased with other goods to satisfy a want

为满足某种需求而与其他商品一起购买的商品。

Composite Demand

复合需求

When a good is demanded for two or more distinct uses

当一种商品被要求用于两种或两种以上的不同用途时。

Derived Demand

派生需求

When the demand for one good is the result of the demand for another good

对一种商品的需求是对另一种商品需求的结果

Joint Demand

联合需求

When two or more complements are bought together

当两个或更多的互补品被一起购买时

Joint Supply

联合供应

When two or more goods are produced together, so that a change in supply of one good will necessarily change the supply of the other good(s)

当两种或两种以上的商品一起生产时，一种商品的供应变化必然会改变其他商品的供应。

Substitute

替代物

A good which can replace another to satisfy a want

一种可以替代另一种商品以满足某种需求的商品。

Elastic Demand

弹性需求

Where the price elasticity of demand is greater than 1. The responsiveness of demand is proportionally greater than the change in price. Demand is infinitely elastic if price elasticity of demand is infinity

当需求的价格弹性大于1时，需求的反应性就会按比例大于价格的变化。如果需求的价格弹性为无穷大，则需求是无限弹性的。

Inelastic Demand

无弹性需求

Where the price elasticity of demand is less than 1. The responsiveness of demand is proportionally less than the change in price. Demand is infinitely inelastic if price elasticity of demand is zero

当需求的价格弹性小于1时，需求的反应性按比例小于价格的变化。如果需求的价格弹性为零，则需求是无限无弹性的。

Price Elasticity Of Demand

需求的价格弹性

The proportionate response of changes in quantity demanded to a proportionate change in price

需求量的变化对价格的比例变化的反应。

Unitary Inelasticity

单一的无弹性

Where the value of price elasticity of demand is 1. The responsiveness of demand is proportionally equal to the change in price

当需求的价格弹性值为1时，需求的反应性与价格的变化成正比。

Cross-price Elasticity Of Demand

交叉价格需求弹性

A measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded of one good to a change in price of another good. It is measured by dividing the percentage change in quantity demanded of one good by the percentage change in price of the other good

衡量一种商品的需求量对另一种商品的价格变化的反应能力。用一种商品的需求量变化百分比除以另一种商品的价格变化百分比来衡量。

Income Elasticity Of Demand

需求的收入弹性

A measure of the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in income. It is measured by dividing the percentage change in quantity demanded by the percentage change in income

衡量需求量对收入变化的反应能力。用需求量变化的百分比除以收入变化的百分比来衡量。

Price Elasticity Of Supply

供应的价格弹性

A measure of the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price. It is measured by dividing the percentage change in quantity supplied by the percentage change in price

衡量供应量对价格变化的反应能力。它的测量方法是用供应量变化的百分比除以价格变化的百分比。

Giffen Good

吉芬商品

A special type of inferior good where demand increases when price increases

一种特殊的劣质商品，当价格上涨时，需求也随之增加。

Income Effect

收入效应

The impact on quantity demanded of a change in price due to a change in consumers’ real income which results from this change in price

价格变化对需求量的影响，其原因是消费者的实际收入因价格变化而发生了变化。

Inferior Good

劣质商品

A good where demand falls when income increases (i.e. it has a negative income elasticity of demand)

收入增加时需求下降的商品（即需求的收入弹性为负）。

Normal Good

正常商品

A good where demand increases when income increases (i.e. it has a positive income elasticity of demand)

当收入增加时，需求增加的商品（即它的收入需求弹性为正）。

Substitution Effect

替代效应

The impact on quantity demanded due to a change in price, assuming that consumers’ real incomes stay the same (i.e. the impact of a change in price excluding the income effect)

假设消费者的实际收入保持不变，价格变化对需求量的影响（即价格变化的影响不包括收入影响）。

Direct Tax

直接税

Levied directly to an individual or organisation. Generally paid on incomes

直接向个人或组织征收。一般是按收入支付的

Indirect Tax

间接税

Usually levied on the purchase of goods and services. It represents a tax on expenditure

通常在购买商品和服务时征收。它是一种支出税

Specific Tax

具体税种

A type of indirect tax. It is charged as a fixed amount per unit of a good. (Example: Excise Tax)

一种类型的间接税。它以每单位商品的固定金额收取。(例如：消费税）

Ad Valorem Tax

从价税

Charged as a percentage of the price of a good. (Example: VAT)

按商品价格的一个百分比收取。(例如：增值税）

Subsidy

补贴

A grant provided by the government, to encourage suppliers to increase production of a good or service, leading to a fall in its price

由政府提供的补助，以鼓励供应商增加商品或服务的生产，从而导致其价格下降。

Allocative Or Economic Efficiency

分配或经济效率

Occurs when resources are distributed in such a way that no consumers could be made better off without other consumers becoming worse off

当资源的分配方式是，如果没有其他消费者变得更差，就不会有消费者变得更好的情况发生。

Dynamic Efficiency

动态效率

Occurs when resources are allocated efficiently over time

当资源随着时间的推移被有效分配时发生。

Market Failure

市场失灵

Occurs when the price mechanism causes an inefficient allocation of resources; the forces of demand and supply lead to a net welfare loss in society

当价格机制导致资源的无效率配置时发生；需求和供应的力量导致社会的净福利损失。

Externalities

外部因素

Those costs or benefits which are external to an exchange. They are third part effects ignored by the price mechanism

这些成本或利益是交换的外部因素。它们是被价格机制忽略的第三部分效应。

Productive Efficiency

生产效率

Is achieved when production is achieved at lowest cost

当生产以最低成本实现时，就达到了生产效率。

Static Efficiency

静态效率

Occurs when resources are allocated efficiently at a point in time

当资源在某个时间点上被有效分配时，就会出现这种情况。

Technical Efficiency

技术效率

Is achieved when a given quantity of output is produced with the minimum number of inputs

当用最少的投入生产出一定数量的产出时，就能实现技术效率。

External Costs

外部成本

May occur in the production and the consumption of a good or service. (i.e. pollution)

可能发生在商品或服务的生产和消费过程中。(即污染）。

Private Costs

私人成本

Costs internal to the firm, which it directly pays for

公司内部的成本，由其直接支付。

Social Costs

社会成本

By adding private costs to external costs we obtain social costs

通过将私人成本与外部成本相加，我们得到社会成本

External Benefits

外部利益

May occur in the production and consumption of a good or service. (i.e. recycling)

可能发生在商品或服务的生产和消费过程中。(即回收利用)

Private Benefits

私人利益

The revenue that a firm obtains from selling a good or service

企业通过销售商品或服务获得的收入。

Social Benefits

社会效益

By adding private benefits to external benefits

we obtain social benefits

通过将私人利益与外部利益相加

我们得到了社会效益

Free Rider

搭便车

A person or organisation which receives benefits that others have paid for without making any contribution themselves

一个人或组织接受了别人支付的利益，而自己却没有做出任何贡献。

Merit Good

功利性物品

A good which is underprovided by the market mechanism. A demerit good is one which is overprovided by the market mechanism

一种市场机制提供不足的物品。劣质品是指由市场机制提供过多的物品。

Private Good

私人物品

A good where consumption by one person results in the good not being available for consumption by another

一个人的消费导致另一个人无法消费的物品。

Public Good Or Pure Public Good

公共物品或纯公共物品

A good where consumption by one person does not reduce the amount available for consumption by another person and where once provided, all individuals benefit or suffer whether they wish to or not

一个人的消费不会减少另一个人的消费数量，而且一旦提供，所有的人都会受益或受害，不管他们是否愿意。

Quasi-public Good Or Non-pure Public Good

准公共物品或非纯公共物品

A good which may not possess perfectly the characteristics of being non-excludable but which is non-rival

一种可能不完全具备非排他性的特征，但又是非竞争性的物品。

Commodities

商品

Raw materials used in the production of goods

用于生产商品的原材料

Principal-agent Problem

委托-代理问题

Occurs when the goals of principals, those standing to gain or lose from a decision, are different from agents, those making decisions on behalf of the principal

当委托人的目标，即那些从决策中获得或失去利益的人，与代理人，即那些代表委托人做决策的人的目标不同时，就会出现这种情况。

Symmetric Information

对称信息

Where buyers and sellers have access to the same information

买家和卖家可以获得相同的信息。

Asymmetric Information

不对称信息

Where buyers and sellers have different amounts of information

买家和卖家拥有不同数量的信息

Buffer Stock Schemes

缓冲库存计划

A scheme whereby an organisation buys and sells in the open market so as to maintain a minimum price in the market for a product

一个组织在公开市场上进行买卖，以维持产品在市场上的最低价格的计划。

Government Failure

政府失灵

This occurs if government intervention leads to a net welfare loss.

如果政府干预导致了净福利损失，就会出现这种情况。